1: History of inorganic chemistry

History of Inorganic Chemistry

Inorganic chemistry, the study of non-carbon-based compounds and elements, originated in ancient civilizations. Early humans practiced metallurgy (extracting copper, iron, and tin) and crafted ceramics, glass, and dyes from minerals. Alchemy (≈500 BCE–1600 CE) laid foundational techniques like distillation and crystallization while pursuing transmutation (e.g., base metals to gold) and elixirs, though it blended mysticism with practical chemistry.

The scientific revolution (17th–18th centuries) transformed inorganic chemistry into a rigorous discipline. Robert Boyle’s The Sceptical Chymist (1661) rejected alchemical dogma, advocating experimental verification. Antoine Lavoisier’s conservation of mass principle (1789) and systematic element naming established quantitative analysis. His identification of oxygen, hydrogen, and 33 total elements refuted phlogiston theory.

The 19th century brought atomic theory and periodicity. John Dalton’s atomic theory (1808) proposed elements as unique atoms combining in fixed ratios. Jöns Berzelius developed modern chemical symbols (e.g., Fe for iron) and discovered cerium, selenium, and thorium. Dmitri Mendeleev’s periodic table (1869) organized elements by atomic weight and valence, predicting properties of undiscovered elements (e.g., gallium).

The early 20th century revealed subatomic structure. Henri Becquerel and Marie Curie’s work on radioactivity (1896–1898) showed elements could decay, leading to nuclear chemistry. Ernest Rutherford’s gold foil experiment (1911) identified the atomic nucleus, while Niels Bohr’s quantum model (1913) explained electron behavior. These advances clarified chemical bonding and periodicity.

Post-1950 innovations expanded inorganic chemistry’s scope:

• Alfred Werner’s coordination theory (1893) explained transition metal complexes (e.g., cobalt ammines), later refined by crystal field theory (1950s).
• Organometallic chemistry surged with ferrocene’s synthesis (1951), enabling catalysts like Wilkinson’s catalyst (RhCl(PPh₃)₃) for industrial hydrogenation.
• Bioinorganic chemistry emerged, linking metals to biological processes (e.g., hemoglobin’s iron, chlorophyll’s magnesium).
• Materials science revolutionized electronics and energy storage (e.g., high-temperature superconductors, silicon chips).

This evolution—from ancient crafts to quantum mechanics—established inorganic chemistry as essential for understanding elemental behavior and developing modern technologies.