2: Major Perspectives: Psychodynamic, Behavioral, Humanistic, Cognitive, Biological, Evolutionary, Sociocultural

Major Perspectives in Psychology

Psychology encompasses diverse theoretical viewpoints that explain human behavior and mental processes. Seven major perspectives offer unique insights:

Psychodynamic Perspective
Founded by Sigmund Freud, this approach emphasizes unconscious drives, childhood experiences, and internal conflicts. Key concepts include the id (instincts), ego (reality), and superego (morality). Defense mechanisms (e.g., repression) protect the ego from anxiety. Freud’s psychosexual stages (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital) link early development to adult personality. Critics note its lack of empirical rigor, but it pioneered talk therapy and influenced personality studies.

Behavioral Perspective
Focuses on observable behaviors shaped by environmental interactions. Classical conditioning (Pavlov’s salivating dogs) pairs stimuli to evoke involuntary responses. Operant conditioning (Skinner’s reinforcement/punishment experiments) strengthens or weakens voluntary behaviors through consequences. Watson’s behaviorism rejected introspection, arguing psychology must study measurable actions. This perspective underpins behavior modification therapies.

Humanistic Perspective
Emerging in the 1950s as a "third force" against behaviorism and psychodynamics, it highlights free will, self-actualization, and innate goodness. Carl Rogers stressed unconditional positive regard and client-centered therapy. Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (physiological to self-actualization) posits humans strive toward growth. Critics argue its concepts are vague, but it revolutionized psychotherapy by emphasizing empathy and potential.

Cognitive Perspective
Examines mental processes like memory, problem-solving, and perception. Jean Piaget’s stages of cognitive development describe how children construct knowledge. Aaron Beck linked distorted thinking to depression, founding cognitive therapy. This lens views humans as information processors, using schemas to interpret experiences. It integrates with neuroscience to explore brain-behavior connections.

Biological Perspective
Attributes behavior to genetics, brain structures, neurotransmitters, and hormones. Tools like fMRI scans reveal neural activity during tasks. Studies of twins or brain injuries (e.g., Phineas Gage) illustrate biology’s role in personality and disorders. Neurotransmitter imbalances (e.g., serotonin in depression) inform pharmacological treatments.

Evolutionary Perspective
Applies Darwinian principles to psychology, suggesting adaptive behaviors persist through natural selection. David Buss explores mating strategies, while Leda Cosmides studies innate cognitive modules (e.g., detecting cheaters). Critics caution against "just-so stories," but it explains universal traits like fear responses or parental investment.

Sociocultural Perspective
Highlights how social norms, cultural practices, and group identities shape behavior. Solomon Asch’s conformity experiments and Stanley Milgram’s obedience studies reveal situational pressures. Lev Vygotsky emphasized cultural tools (e.g., language) in cognitive development. This lens underscores diversity, such as individualistic vs. collectivistic values’ impact on self-concept.

These perspectives coexist, offering complementary frameworks for analyzing psychological phenomena.